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Atom interferometer

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An atom interferometer uses the wave-like nature of atoms in order to produce interference. In atom interferometers, the roles of matter and light are reversed compared to the laser based interferometers, i.e. the beam splitter and mirrors are lasers while the source emits matter waves (the atoms) rather than light. Atom interferometers measure the difference in phase between atomic matter waves along different paths. Matter waves are controlled and manipulated using systems of lasers. [1]: 420–1  Atom interferometers have been used in tests of fundamental physics, including measurements of the gravitational constant, the fine-structure constant, and universality of free fall. Applied uses of atom interferometers include accelerometers, rotation sensors, and gravity gradiometers.[2]

Overview

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Interferometry splits a wave into a superposition along two different paths. A spatially dependent potential or a local interaction differentiates the paths, introducing a phase difference between waves. Atom interferometers use center of mass matter waves with short de Broglie wavelength.[3] [4] Experiments using molecules have been proposed to search for the limits of quantum mechanics by leveraging the molecules' shorter De Broglie wavelengths.[5]

Interferometer types

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A compact Magneto-optical Trap, the first step in generating an atom interferometer.

While the use of atoms offers easy access to higher frequencies (and thus accuracies) than light, atoms are affected much more strongly by gravity. In some apparatuses, the atoms are ejected upwards and the interferometry takes place while the atoms are in flight, or while falling in free flight. In other experiments gravitational effects by free acceleration are not negated; additional forces are used to compensate for gravity. While these guided systems in principle can provide arbitrary amounts of measurement time, their quantum coherence is still under discussion. Recent theoretical studies indicate that coherence is indeed preserved in the guided systems, but this has yet to be experimentally confirmed.

The early atom interferometers deployed slits or wires for the beam splitters and mirrors. Later systems, especially the guided ones, used light forces for splitting and reflecting of the matter wave.[6]

Examples

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Group Year Atomic species Method Measured effect(s)
Pritchard 1991 Na, Na2 Nano-fabricated gratings Polarizability, index of refraction
Clauser 1994 K Talbot–Lau interferometer
Zeilinger 1995 Ar Standing light wave diffraction gratings
Helmke
Bordé 		1991 Ramsey–Bordé Polarizability,
Aharonov–Bohm effect: exp/theo ,
Sagnac effect 0.3 rad/s/Hz
Chu 1991
1998 		Na

Cs

Kasevich–Chu interferometer
Light pulses Raman diffraction 		Gravimeter:
Fine-structure constant:
Kasevich 1997
1998 		Cs Light pulses Raman diffraction Gyroscope: rad/s/Hz,
Gradiometer:
Berman Talbot-Lau
Mueller 2018 Cs Ramsey-Bordé interferometer Fine-structure constant:

History

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Interference of atom matter waves was first observed by Immanuel Estermann and Otto Stern in 1930, when a sodium (Na) beam was diffracted off a surface of sodium chloride (NaCl).[7] The first modern atom interferometer reported was a double-slit experiment with metastable helium atoms and a microfabricated double slit by O. Carnal and Jürgen Mlynek in 1991,[8] and an interferometer using three microfabricated diffraction gratings and Na atoms in the group around David E. Pritchard at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).[9] Shortly afterwards, an optical version of a Ramsey spectrometer typically used in atomic clocks was recognized also as an atom interferometer at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Braunschweig, Germany.[10] The largest physical separation between the partial wave packets of atoms was achieved using laser cooling techniques and stimulated Raman transitions by Steven Chu and his coworkers in Stanford University.[11]

In 1999, the diffraction of C60 fullerenes by researchers from the University of Vienna was reported.[12] Fullerenes are comparatively large and massive objects, having an atomic mass of about 720 Da. The de Broglie wavelength of the incident beam was about 2.5 pm, whereas the diameter of the molecule is about 1 nm, about 400 times larger. In 2012, these far-field diffraction experiments could be extended to phthalocyanine molecules and their heavier derivatives, which are composed of 58 and 114 atoms respectively. In these experiments the build-up of such interference patterns could be recorded in real time and with single molecule sensitivity.[13]

In 2003, the Vienna group also demonstrated the wave nature of tetraphenylporphyrin[14]—a flat biodye with an extension of about 2 nm and a mass of 614 Da. For this demonstration they employed a near-field Talbot–Lau interferometer.[15][16] In the same interferometer they also found interference fringes for C60F48, a fluorinated buckyball with a mass of about 1600 Da, composed of 108 atoms.[14] Large molecules are already so complex that they give experimental access to some aspects of the quantum-classical interface, i.e., to certain decoherence mechanisms.[17][18] In 2011, the interference of molecules as heavy as 6910 Da could be demonstrated in a Kapitza–Dirac–Talbot–Lau interferometer.[19] In 2013, the interference of molecules beyond 10,000 Da has been demonstrated.[20]

The 2008 comprehensive review by Alexander D. Cronin, Jörg Schmiedmayer, and David E. Pritchard documents many new experimental approaches to atom interferometry.[21] More recently atom interferometers have begun moving out of laboratory conditions and have begun to address a variety of applications in real world environments.[22][23]

Applications

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Gravitational physics

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A precise measurement of gravitational redshift was made in 2009 by Holger Muller, Achim Peters, and Steven Chu. No violations of general relativity were found to 7×10−9.[24]

In 2020, Peter Asenbaum, Chris Overstreet, Minjeong Kim, Joseph Curti, and Mark A. Kasevich used atom interferometry to test the principle of equivalence in general relativity. They found no violations to about 10−12.[25][26]

Inertial navigation

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The first team to make a working model, Pritchard's, was propelled by David Keith.[27] Atomic interferometer gyroscopes (AIG) and atomic spin gyroscopes (ASG) use atomic interferometer to sense rotation or in the latter case, uses atomic spin to sense rotation with both having compact size, high precision, and the possibility of being made on a chip-scale.[28][29] "AI gyros" may compete, along with ASGs, with the established ring laser gyroscope, fiber optic gyroscope and hemispherical resonator gyroscope in future inertial guidance applications.[30]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hecht, Eugene (2017). Optics (5th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-133-97722-6.
  2. ^ Stray, Ben; Lamb, Andrew; Kaushik, Aisha; Vovrosh, Jamie; Winch, Jonathan; Hayati, Farzad; Boddice, Daniel; Stabrawa, Artur; Niggebaum, Alexander; Langlois, Mehdi; Lien, Yu-Hung; Lellouch, Samuel; Roshanmanesh, Sanaz; Ridley, Kevin; de Villiers, Geoffrey; Brown, Gareth; Cross, Trevor; Tuckwell, George; Faramarzi, Asaad; Metje, Nicole; Bongs, Kai; Holynski, Michael (2020). "Quantum sensing for gravity cartography". Nature. 602 (7898): 590–594. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04315-3. PMC 8866129. PMID 35197616.
  3. ^ Cronin, A. D.; Schmiedmayer, J.; Pritchard, D. E. (2009). "Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules". Rev. Mod. Phys. 81 (3): 1051–1129. arXiv:0712.3703. Bibcode:2009RvMP...81.1051C. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1051. S2CID 28009912.
  4. ^ Adams, C. S.; Sigel, M.; Mlynek, J. (1994). "Atom Optics". Phys. Rep. 240 (3): 143–210. Bibcode:1994PhR...240..143A. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(94)90066-3.
  5. ^ Hornberger, K.; et al. (2012). "Colloquium: Quantum interference of clusters and molecules". Rev. Mod. Phys. 84 (1): 157. arXiv:1109.5937. Bibcode:2012RvMP...84..157H. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.84.157. S2CID 55687641.
  6. ^ Rasel, E. M.; et al. (1995). "Atom Wave Interferometry with Diffraction Gratings of Light". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (14): 2633–2637. Bibcode:1995PhRvL..75.2633R. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.75.2633. PMID 10059366.
  7. ^ Estermann, I.; Stern, Otto (1930). "Beugung von Molekularstrahlen". Z. Phys. 61 (1–2): 95. Bibcode:1930ZPhy...61...95E. doi:10.1007/bf01340293. S2CID 121757478.
  8. ^ Carnal, O.; Mlynek, J. (1991). "Young's double-slit experiment with atoms: A simple atom interferometer". Phys. Rev. Lett. 66 (21): 2689–2692. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..66.2689C. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.66.2689. PMID 10043591.
  9. ^ Keith, D.W.; Ekstrom, C.R.; Turchette, Q.A.; Pritchard, D.E. (1991). "An interferometer for atoms". Phys. Rev. Lett. 66 (21): 2693–2696. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..66.2693K. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.66.2693. PMID 10043592. S2CID 6559338.
  10. ^ Riehle, F.; Th; Witte, A.; Helmcke, J.; Ch; Bordé, J. (1991). "Optical Ramsey spectroscopy in a rotating frame: Sagnac effect in a matter-wave interferometer". Phys. Rev. Lett. 67 (2): 177–180. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..67..177R. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.67.177. PMID 10044514.
  11. ^ Kasevich, M.; Chu, S. (1991). "Atomic interferometry using stimulated Raman transitions". Phys. Rev. Lett. 67 (2): 181–184. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..67..181K. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.67.181. PMID 10044515. S2CID 30845889.
  12. ^ Arndt, Markus; O. Nairz; J. Voss-Andreae, C. Keller, G. van der Zouw, A. Zeilinger (14 October 1999). "Wave–particle duality of C60". Nature. 401 (6754): 680–682. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..680A. doi:10.1038/44348. PMID 18494170. S2CID 4424892.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Juffmann, Thomas; et al. (25 March 2012). "Real-time single-molecule imaging of quantum interference". Nature Nanotechnology. 7 (5): 297–300. arXiv:1402.1867. Bibcode:2012NatNa...7..297J. doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.34. PMID 22447163. S2CID 5918772.
  14. ^ a b Hackermüller, Lucia; Stefan Uttenthaler; Klaus Hornberger; Elisabeth Reiger; Björn Brezger; Anton Zeilinger; Markus Arndt (2003). "The wave nature of biomolecules and fluorofullerenes". Phys. Rev. Lett. 91 (9): 090408. arXiv:quant-ph/0309016. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91i0408H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.090408. PMID 14525169. S2CID 13533517.
  15. ^ Clauser, John F.; S. Li (1994). "Talbot von Lau interefometry with cold slow potassium atoms". Phys. Rev. A. 49 (4): R2213–2217. Bibcode:1994PhRvA..49.2213C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.49.R2213. PMID 9910609.
  16. ^ Brezger, Björn; Lucia Hackermüller; Stefan Uttenthaler; Julia Petschinka; Markus Arndt; Anton Zeilinger (2002). "Matter-wave interferometer for large molecules". Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (10): 100404. arXiv:quant-ph/0202158. Bibcode:2002PhRvL..88j0404B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.100404. PMID 11909334. S2CID 19793304.
  17. ^ Hornberger, Klaus; Stefan Uttenthaler; Björn Brezger; Lucia Hackermüller; Markus Arndt; Anton Zeilinger (2003). "Observation of Collisional Decoherence in Interferometry". Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 (16): 160401. arXiv:quant-ph/0303093. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90p0401H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.160401. PMID 12731960. S2CID 31057272.
  18. ^ Hackermüller, Lucia; Klaus Hornberger; Björn Brezger; Anton Zeilinger; Markus Arndt (2004). "Decoherence of matter waves by thermal emission of radiation". Nature. 427 (6976): 711–714. arXiv:quant-ph/0402146. Bibcode:2004Natur.427..711H. doi:10.1038/nature02276. PMID 14973478. S2CID 3482856.
  19. ^ Gerlich, Stefan; et al. (2011). "Quantum interference of large organic molecules". Nature Communications. 2 (263): 263. Bibcode:2011NatCo...2..263G. doi:10.1038/ncomms1263. PMC 3104521. PMID 21468015.
  20. ^ Eibenberger, S.; Gerlich, S.; Arndt, M.; Mayor, M.; Tüxen, J. (2013). "Matter–wave interference of particles selected from a molecular library with masses exceeding 10 000 amu". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 15 (35): 14696–14700. arXiv:1310.8343. Bibcode:2013PCCP...1514696E. doi:10.1039/c3cp51500a. PMID 23900710. S2CID 3944699.
  21. ^ Cronin, Alexander D.; Schmiedmayer, Jörg; Pritchard, David E. (2009). "Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules". Reviews of Modern Physics. 81 (3): 1051–1129. arXiv:0712.3703. Bibcode:2009RvMP...81.1051C. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1051. S2CID 28009912.
  22. ^ Bongs, K.; Holynski, M.; Vovrosh, J.; Bouyer, P.; Condon, G.; Rasel, E.; Schubert, C.; Schleich, W.P.; Roura, A. (2019). "Taking atom interferometric quantum sensors from the laboratory to real-world applications". Nat. Rev. Phys. 1 (12): 731–739. Bibcode:2019NatRP...1..731B. doi:10.1038/s42254-019-0117-4. S2CID 209940190.
  23. ^ Vovrosh, J.; Dragomir, A.; Stray, B.; Boddice, B. (2023). "Advances in Portable Atom Interferometry-Based Gravity Sensing". Sensors. 23 (7): 7651. Bibcode:2023Senso..23.7651V. doi:10.3390/s23177651. PMC 10490657. PMID 37688106.
  24. ^ Muller, Holger; Peters, Achim; Chu, Steven (2010). "A precision measurement of the gravitational redshift by the interference of matter waves". Nature. 463 (7283): 926–929. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..926M. doi:10.1038/nature08776. PMID 20164925. S2CID 4317164.
  25. ^ Asenbaum, Peter; Overstreet, Chris; Kim, Minjeong; Curti, Joseph; Kasevich, Mark A. (2020). "Atom-Interferometric Test of the Equivalence Principle at the 10−12 Level". Physical Review Letters. 125 (19): 191101. arXiv:2005.11624. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.191101. PMID 33216577. S2CID 218869931.
  26. ^ Conover, Emily (October 28, 2020). "Galileo's famous gravity experiment holds up, even with individual atoms". Science News. Retrieved August 6, 2023.
  27. ^ Rotman, David (February 8, 2013). "A Cheap and Easy Plan to Stop Global Warming". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  28. ^ Fang, Jiancheng; Qin, Jie (2012). "Advances in Atomic Gyroscopes: A View from Inertial Navigation Applications". Sensors. 12 (5): 6331–6346. Bibcode:2012Senso..12.6331F. doi:10.3390/s120506331. PMC 3386743. PMID 22778644.
  29. ^ Advances in Atomic Gyroscopes: A View from Inertial Navigation Applications. Full PDF
  30. ^ Cold Atom Gyros – IEEE Sensors 2013
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  • P. R. Berman [Editor], Atom Interferometry. Academic Press (1997). Detailed overview of atom interferometers at that time (good introductions and theory).
  • Stedman Review of the Sagnac Effect
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